How do people learn a second language? A number of scholars have explained this process based on research findings in the fields of linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and neurolinguistics. Currently, there are three major theoretical perspectives on second language acquisition and learning which are widely accepted by the academic community. An understanding of the theories of second language acquisition and learning is necessary to help future teachers effectively serve culturally and linguistically diverse students in their classrooms. In particular, it can help teachers to develop appropriate instructional strategies and assessments. This is especially important in schools where English Language Learners (ELLs) have either limited or no native language support.
THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION & LEARNING
The Stages of Second Language Development
Many contemporary theorists believe that second language learners progress through five predictable stages of language development. These stages are: the preproduction stage, the production, the speech emergence stage, the intermediate language proficiency stage, and the advanced language proficiency stage.
The Preproduction or Silent/Receptive Stage
This stage may last from 10 hours to six months. It often involves a silent period during which second language learners are not speaking but have a lexicon of about 500 words and may respond via strategies such as gesturing and pointing. Teachers should not force students to speak until they are ready.
The Early Production Stage
This stage may last six months. Second language learners in this stage have a lexicon of about 1,000 words, speak in one- or two-word sentences, and respond to yes/no, either/or, or who/what/where questions using short answers.
The Speech Emergence Stage
This stage may last up to a year. Second language learners in this stage have a lexicon of about 3,000 words and communicate using short sentences. They begin to engage in dialogue.
The Intermediate Language Proficiency Stage
This stage may last a year. Second language learners have a lexicon of about 6,000 words. They can speak in long sentences, ask questions, and express their opinions and thoughts.
The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage
It takes 5 to 7 years to reach this stage. At this stage, second language learners have acquired content-area vocabulary, can fully participate in classroom activities, and can speak English like native speakers of the same age.
Stephen Krashen's Theory
Krashen's theory is based on five hypotheses, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.
The acquisition-learning hypothesis posits that there are two independent systems of second language performance, namely acquisition and learning. Acquisition is a subconscious process similar to the process of first language acquisition. It results from natural communication in the target language. Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process that results from formal instruction about grammar. Krashen argues that acquisition is more important than learning.
The monitor hypothesis further explains the relationship between acquisition and learning. According to Krashen, acquisition initiates speech whereas learning initiates monitoring. The monitor causes second language learners to edit or correct themselves when they are focusing on form.
The natural order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition of grammatical rules follows a predictable order. This means that some grammatical rules are acquired before others. Krashen however does not recommend that grammatical rules be taught according to the order shown by research.
The input hypothesis explains how the learner acquires a second language. It is thus only concerned with acquisition. According to Krashen, second language learners acquire skills in a predictable order when they receive input that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence.
The affective filter hypothesis states that there are a number of affective variables that impact on second language acquisition, including motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen argues that second language learners who are highly motivated, self-confident, and have a low level of anxiety are more likely to be successful with second language acquisition. To the contrary, low motivation, low self-esteem, and high anxiety can cause second language learners' affective filter to be up, and subsequently block comprehensible input, and impede acquisition. It is therefore important for teachers to create learning environments that are non-threatening and supportive of students in order to increase students' motivation to learn a second language.
Jim Cummins's Theory
According to Cummins, there are two sorts of language proficiency, namely BICS and CALP. BICS (basic interpersonal communications skills) represents students' survival skills in a language (e.g., street English) and CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency) represents the school-related language that they need to be successful academically. It takes students 2-3 years to develop BICS and 5-7 years to develop CALP in a second language if they received native language development up to the 6th grade.
In the United States, English Language Learners (ELLs) need to develop both BICS and CALP in English in order to survive and be successful in mainstream English-only classes. Unfortunately, many English Language Learners in this country are mainstreamed into regular classes from ESL or Bilingual Education settings prior to having developed both types of proficiency. Cummins's theory has important implications for classroom instruction. It suggests strategies for teachers to use to help students improve their language competencies in English. In particular, teachers should exercise both BICS and CALP in students. This can be done by engaging students in cognitively undemanding communication that requires minimal abstract or critical thinking (e.g., yes/no questions, informal conversation), as well as in cognitively demanding communication that requires students to think abstractly and analyze information (e.g., discussion about academic content). Concrete objects and technology can also prove beneficial in helping students grasp concepts visually.
METHODS OF IDENTIFYING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
In the United States, the law requires that students attending public schools who do not speak English or who are unable to complete classroom assignments in English be identified and receive special language instruction that is designed to assist them in learning both English and subject matter content (e.g., bilingual education or English-as-a-second-language instruction).
In many schools around the nation, English Language Learners (ELLs) are identified using a combination of language surveys and tests. Schools typically administer a Home Language Survey to all students to find out which students speak a language other than English at home and to compile a list of students who need to be tested for English proficiency. All students whose native language is other than English are then administered different language tests to assess their level of English proficiency in speaking, listening, reading and writing. Some of the assessments of language proficiency commonly used were developed by the WIDA Consortium.
You can read more about WIDA at: http://www.wida.us/index.aspx.
Students' test scores on language proficiency assessments are ultimately used by trained personnel to determine which students are English Language Learners (ELLs) and to place ELLs in classroom settings where they can receive special language services.
LEGISLATION PROTECTING THE RIGHTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
The educational rights of U.S. non-native English speakers are safeguarded through several pieces of legislation.
Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 prohibiting discrimination against students on the basis of race, color, and national origin in federally funded programs. This guaranteed students from different ethnic and racial backgrounds the right to a meaningful and quality education.
Bilingual Education Act or Title VII
The Bilingual Education Act was first passed in 1968 and re-appropriated in 1974 to encourage U.S. school districts to implement Bilingual Education programs or when impractical, ESL programs to serve the needs of English Language Learners (ELLs). It provided funding to school districts interested in establishing such programs.
Lau v. Nichols
In 1974, a class-action suit (Lau v. Nichols) was brought before the U.S. Supreme Court on behalf of 1800 Chinese students who had limited English proficiency. The suit claimed that the San Francisco Board of Education failed to address the needs of non-English speaking students through special language programs. Following review of the case, the Supreme Court ruled that students who do not understand English are foreclosed from a meaningful education irrespective of the fact that they may receive the same textbooks, teachers, and curriculum as other students. The Supreme Court ordered schools to implement special language programs for English Language Learners (ELLs).
Equal Educational Opportunities Act
The Equal Educational Opportunities Act was passed in 1974 guaranteeing English Language Learners equal opportunities in education. It provided definitions of what constitutes denial of equal educational opportunity. In particular, it stated that when an educational institution fails to implement special language programs, students are denied equal participation in instruction.
PL 94-142
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act further compelled states to stop using culturally biased tests with ethnic and language minorities and to test students in their native language.
How has legislation protecting the rights of English Language Learners impacted the world of school?
Throughout the 1970s, the U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights worked with schools to implement Bilingual Education. However, during the early 1980s, President Reagan allowed the local school districts to decide which language programs they wanted to implement. This resulted in an increase of Transitional Bilingual Education and ESL-only programs.
TEACHING NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS IN U.S. SCHOOLS
In U.S. schools, English Language Learners (ELLs) are typically placed in bilingual or ESL classroom settings. Various program models exist within bilingual/ESL education, including 3 program models in bilingual education and 3 program models in ESL. What distinguishes these programs is the amount of time that the first and second language is used for instruction. The three program models in bilingual education are transitional bilingual education, two-way bilingual education, and maintenance bilingual education. The three program models in ESL are ESL taught as a subject, content-based ESL, and ESL pullout.
Program Models for Bilingual Education
Transitional bilingual education
In transitional bilingual education classes, English Language Learners (ELLs) are taught academic content in their native language and also receive English as a second language instruction for a period of two to three years. This program model is also called "early –exit bilingual education). The goal of this program is to mainstream students into grade-level classes as soon as possible. To this aim, instruction in the native language is gradually phased out until all instruction can be delivered in English.
Two-way bilingual education
In two-way bilingual education classes, native-English speakers and English Language Learners (ELLs) are taught content in two languages (e.g., English and Spanish). In a 90-10 model, students in kindergarten and grade 1 receive instruction in the minority language for 90% of the school day. In grade 2 or 3, students start to receive instruction in the majority language. Instruction in the majority language is increased until instruction is delivered in both languages around grade 4 or 5. In a 50-50 model, students in grades K-12 are taught 50% of the time in the majority language and 50% of the time in the minority language.
Maintenance bilingual education
In maintenance bilingual education classes, English Language Learners (ELLs) receive content-area instruction in their native language and the second language throughout their schooling. This is why this program is also called "late-exit bilingual education).
Program Models for ESL
ESL
In ESL classes taught as subject, English Language Learners (ELLs) receive language instruction in the second language.
ESL Pullout
In ESL pullout classes, English Language Learners (ELLs) are taken out of their regular grade-level classes for a portion of the day to receive English-as-a-second language instruction.
Content-based ESL
In content-based ESL classes, English Language Learners (ELLs) are taught language and academic content in the second language for one or two years and then are placed in regular grade-level classes.
TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS (ELLs)
According to the law, U.S. schools must identify all students with limited English proficiency via language proficiency assessments and place these students in appropriate language settings. This requirement became effective following the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, Lau vs. Nichols in 1974, and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974.
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 requires U.S. school districts to implement Bilingual Education programs or ESL programs to serve the needs of English Language Learners (ELLs). In Lau vs. Nichols (1974), the Supreme Court further ordered schools to implement special language programs for English Language Learners (ELLs). The Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 also reaffirmed the rights of English Language Learners (ELLs) to receive equal opportunities in education through the establishment of special language programs.
In consequence, it is teachers' responsibility to recommend students who appear to have limited English proficiency or who have difficulty speaking, reading, and writing the English language to counselors for English language proficiency testing. It is also teachers' responsibility to deliver quality instruction to English Language Learners (ELLs). The following teaching strategies are recommended with English Language Learners (ELLs):
- Provide comprehensible input (language that English Language Learners can understand)
- Use lots of vocabulary handouts and visuals
- Teach to students' ZPD - Zone of Proximal Development (the difference between what a student can do alone and what he/she can do with guidance) by scaffolding competencies until students can work independently
- Use buddy-pairing (pairing of a fully-English proficient student with an English Language Learner)
- Use a variety of teaching techniques such as cooperative learning, project-based learning, and small group instruction.
- Use varied technology resources (e.g., e-books with audio, web 2.0 tools, and educational apps)
- Relate content to the real world and teach multiculturally by building on students' community experiences
REFERENCES
Anthony Picciano. (2006). Bilingual Education – Dr. A. Picciano. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/7cNXC0ZM2YA
Collier, V. (1987). Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 617-641.
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles.
Gollnick, D. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural education in a pluralistic society (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. New York: Longman.
Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Prentice-Hall.
Krashen, S. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Prentice-Hall.
Luis Ocampo. (2015). Stephen Krashen's theories. Retrieved March 10, 2018 from https://youtu.be/EaqR6bghTT0
Lyons, J. (1992). Legal responsibilities of education agencies serving national origin language minority students. Washington, DC: Mid-Atlantic Equity Center.
Lyons, J. (1995). The past and future directions of federal bilingual education policy. In C. Baker (Ed.), Policy and practice in bilingual education: Extending the foundations (pp. 1-15). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Michelle Klepper. (2008). Who Are ELL students? Retrieved from https://youtu.be/G6Hr3PN9r6I
Ovando, C. & Collier, V. (1998). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill
richeditor. (2007). SFUSD Bilingual Education Lau vs Nichols SFGTV San Francisco. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXhQrJ37gFE
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). The condition of education 2005, NCES 2005-094, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Information from this post may be used provided credit is given to Dominique Charlotteaux
