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The term "philosophy" comes from the Greek "philo", which means love, and "sophos", which means wisdom. It is the love of wisdom. It includes various branches that are of significance to the field of education, including metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic. These branches seek to answer fundamental questions about life such as "what is real", "how do we know", "what is good", and "what is bad"? Many of these questions also relate to the field of education. It is therefore important for future teachers to study philosophy in order to make informed decisions about many educational issues.
PHILOSOPHICAL BRANCHES AND CONCEPTS
Metaphysics
Metaphysics deals with the origin and nature of reality and what we know. It asks questions such as "what is real", "is matter real", "is the mind real", and "does reality change"?
Schools address issues related to metaphysics in different ways by giving emphasis to certain aspects of the curriculum over others. For example, some schools stress the importance of using scientific observations to study nature. This supports the belief that only matter is real. On the other hand, some schools emphasize the need for students to find purpose in life. This supports the belief that reality is only known through the mind.
In addition, in some schools, the curriculum focuses on the enduring ideas, achievements, and works of the past, emphasizing the study of history, language, math, science, arts, and the Great Books of Western culture. This supports the idea that knowledge does not change. In other schools, the curriculum incorporates new trends and developments in various disciplines and in technology. This supports the idea that knowledge is constantly changing.
Epistemology
Epistemology deals with the origin and nature of knowledge and how we know. It asks questions such as "what is true" and "what is the source of knowledge"?
Schools also vary in the way that they address issues related to epistemology. Some stress the importance of scientific inquiry in gaining knowledge. This corroborates the idea that knowledge comes from empirical evidence. Some schools emphasize the power of reasoning, supporting the idea that knowledge stems from logic.
Axiology
Axiology deals with values and what should be. It entails three fields: ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy.
Ethics deals with questions of values related to behavior, thoughts, and feelings. It asks questions such as "what is right" and "what is wrong"? Questions of ethics also impact schools. The public typically expects schools to instill positive values in students but disagrees on the specific values to be taught.
Aesthetics asks questions of values related to beauty and art such as "is beauty objective" or "is beauty subjective"? Issues related to aesthetics also influence the beauty standards that teachers and students form.
Political philosophy deals with questions of values related to improving society such as "what can we do to bring about change"? Issues of political philosophy also affect schools and the approaches that they implement to improve school effectiveness or address societal problems.
Logic
Logic deals with reasoning and how conclusions are reached. It defines the rules of reasoning. Issues of logic also impact the world of school as students are expected to think clearly and logically. To this end, students are taught deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning requires students to derive conclusions from general concepts. Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, requires students to derive conclusions from particular concepts.
INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHY
In schools around the country, educators are very busy every day of the school year working with and educating students, grading papers, lesson planning, sponsoring extra-curricular activities, holding conferences with parents, and engaging in professional development. How does philosophy enter into the picture? In this unit, we will examine how philosophy impacts education.
The daily decisions of administrators and teachers are typically influenced by their educational philosophy. Philosophy transcends the world of school. It impacts:
- the school mission
- management style of administrators
- physical organization of the classroom
- scheduling
- curricula taught
- teaching style of teachers and the instructional strategies, media, and materials that they use
- the classroom management style of teachers
- extra-curricular programs available to students
- professional development workshops available to teachers
Beyond the world of school, philosophy also impacts many decisions related to educational legislation, policies, and funding, which are made at the federal and state level.
MAJOR PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
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Over the course of history, philosophers have debated many issues related to education. As a result, different philosophies of education have evolved. These educational philosophies have exerted and continue to exert significant influence on U.S. education.
MAJOR PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
There are five major philosophies of education that, over the years, have shaped the work of teachers in U.S. classrooms, including perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism. Two of these educational philosophies are teacher-centered, namely perennialism and essentialism. The educational philosophies of progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism are student-centered.
TEACHER-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
A teacher-centered philosophy of education emphasizes the role of teachers as leaders or "sages on the stage" whose primary responsibility is to transmit knowledge and skills to students. In this type of learning environment, students are passive learners who listen to teachers' lectures and are expected to show cooperation, responsibility, and self-discipline, and to demonstrate learning by recalling information.
Perennialism
To perennialists, nature does not change and knowledge is therefore constant. Perennialists subsequently believe that the purpose of school is to develop the intellect and wisdom of students so that they can learn from history and live wisely in today's society.
The perennialist curriculum requires students to read, study, discuss, and write about the enduring ideas, achievements and works of the past (i.e., the Great Books of Western culture, history, language, math, science, and arts), and to be self-disciplined. An example of a perennialist learning environment is St John's College in Annapolis, MD and Santa Fe, NM.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a core of knowledge and skills, as well as moral and cultural values, that all students need to acquire in order to lead productive lives. According to this perspective, the purpose of school is to pass on "the cultural baton". This is accomplished by teaching students traditional academic disciplines such as math, science, history, foreign language, literature, and technology, as well as leadership and patriotism. An example of an essentialist school program is Rancho Elementary School in Novato, California.
STUDENT-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
A student-centered philosophy of education emphasizes the role of teachers as facilitators or "sages on the side" who focus on topics that are relevant to students' lives and interests, as well as on the individual needs of students. In student-centered classrooms, students are actively engaged in creating knowledge and learning by "doing" (i.e., exploring, experimenting, and discovering) and they are included in making decisions related to their educational process.
Progressivism
Progressivists view nature as changing and knowledge as therefore always evolving. They believe that the purpose of school is to develop students' ability to solve problems. This is done by engaging students in activities that are interesting and relate to real life, and allow students to learn by doing, testing ideas, analyzing experiences, drawing conclusions, and working in groups. An example of a progressivist program is the Laboratory School which was founded by John Dewey.
Social Reconstructionism
According to this school of thought, the purpose of school is to reform society and create a better social order by solving some of the problems that exist in society (e.g., poverty, hunger, and violence). This is achieved by engaging students in research projects that require them to examine, analyze, and recommend solutions to a variety of societal ills. An example of a social reconstructionist school is Sidwell Friends Middle School in Washington, DC which emphasizes environmental sustainability.
Existentialism
In the view of existentialists, there is no universal truth that applies to everyone. The purpose of school is therefore to help students find meaning and direction in their lives by determining what is true and false for themselves and discovering who they are and what their purpose in life is. Students accomplish this by engaging in self-directed and self-paced activities where they question what they read and hear and define who they are, what they think, how they feel, and what they want in life. An example of an existentialist school is the Sudbury Valley School in Framingham, Massachusetts.
OTHER INFLUENCES THAT IMPACT EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
A number of psychological theories have also impacted educational thought and practice, including behaviorism and constructivism.
Behaviorism
This psychological theory is based on the work of B.F. Skinner. According to behaviorists, people are shaped by their environment. Behaviorists subsequently believe that students can be conditioned to behave and learn if teachers break learning down into small steps, give or withhold reinforcement, and provide feedback related to academic tasks.
Constructivism
This theory of psychology is based on the work of cognitive psychologists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Cognitive psychologists do not believe that teachers can transmit knowledge to students. Rather, they believe that students themselves must make sense of their experiences and construct knowledge (i.e., schemas) by engaging in classroom activities such as authentic learning and project-based learning that allow them to think critically, establish connections between their new knowledge and previously acquired knowledge, and to assimilate new information.
THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE
The belief systems that impact educational thought and practice in different school systems around the world vary across nations and cultural groups. In the United States and Europe, the educational philosophies influencing education are derived from Western culture. As immigration continues to rise in this country, it is likely that beliefs and practices from other parts of the world will be incorporated into U.S. education.
DEVELOPING YOUR PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
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In the near future, you will be beginning your teaching career in a school. As you learn the ropes of the teaching profession and attempt to apply the knowledge and skills that you acquired during your teacher preparation program, it will be necessary for you to reflect on the different philosophies of education that you learned about when you were a student, to experiment with different strategies, and to determine which approach works best for you in your particular classroom setting. You will eventually form your own philosophical perspective to education.
Developing your own philosophy of education will require you to reflect on a variety of educational issues and to form informed beliefs about the teaching profession which will guide your approach and practice in the classroom. In particular, it will be helpful for you to answer a number of questions such as:
What is the purpose of school?
Which content knowledge and competencies should schools teach?
How should the school curriculum be taught?
What is teachers' role?
How should learning be assessed?
To develop your personal philosophy of education, you will also need to consider the five major philosophies of education that influence the educational practice of many teachers in this country, and to take a stance regarding which philosophy/philosophies or parts thereof best fit your teaching style and match your educational views. This will also require you to experiment with different strategies and to reflect on which approach is best for you and your students.
REFERENCES
Parkay, F. & Stanford, B. (2020). Becoming a teacher (11th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Piaget, J. (1970). The science of education and the psychology of the child. NY: Grossman.
Sadker, D. & Zittelman, K. (2018). Teachers, schools, and society: A brief introduction to education (5th ed.). NY: McGraw Hill
Skinner, B. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
Skinner, B. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
The Psi Café. Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Bandura.htm
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
