Over the course of history, scholars have studied how children grow and change from infancy through adolescence, and a number of theoretical perspectives have evolved. As our future generation of teachers, it is important that you gain an understanding of these theories in order to teach content and design learning activities that are age appropriate for your students and promote their academic success.
CHILD & ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
From birth through their teenage years, children evolve through a series of developmental periods (i.e., infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence) and experience vast changes at the biological, cognitive, and socioemotional level. These changes have been the subject of extensive scholarly scrutiny and have been documented and explained through five major theoretical perspectives on child and adolescent development, including the psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and ecological perspectives. We will consider one or more theories from each perspective as the latter have implications for teaching and learning.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
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Sigmund Freud |
The psychodynamic perspective is primarily associated with psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) who greatly influenced the fields of psychology and psychiatry by suggesting that human personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious forces. According to Freud, personality is made up of three parts: the id, ego, and superego. Freud also believed that personality develops as children move through five different psychosexual stages (the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages) in which gratification is focused on a particular biological function and body part. If children do not experience gratification or receive too much gratification in a given stage, they may become fixated in that stage and exhibit defense mechanisms or behavioral disorders.
Freud's theory was elaborated on by one of his students named Erik Erikson (1902-1994).
Erik Erikson |
According to Erikson, the way people think, behave, and develop is profoundly affected by social and cultural factors such as experiences, customs. beliefs, attitudes, and values. From infancy through late adulthood, people evolve through eight stages of psychosocial development that are tied to the social context in which they live and during which they are faced with different psychological crises that they have to resolve. To move from one stage to the next, a person must successfully resolve each crisis that he/she is confronted with. When that is not the case, the person will show signs in later stages of development that he/she is still struggling with issues that were not addressed in prior stages. Future educators should pay close attention to the first five stages of development in order to understand how the latter affect the school experiences of children and teenagers.
THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
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John Watson |
The behavioral perspective originated with the work of psychologist John Watson (1878-1958)who argued that human behavior arises in response to stimuli in the environment and is not influenced by the human mind (e.g., unconscious motives or cognitive processes). According to this view, any human action represents a relationship between a stimulus and a response (the S-R model) whereby a stimulus can be shown to cause a response or a response can be traced back to a stimulus. The purpose of psychology therefore is to study, predict, and control human behavior.
Watson became known through his "Little Albert Experiment" in which he studied how children learn emotions such as fear. In this experiment, Watson repeatedly presented an 11-month old baby named Albert with a white rat simultaneously with a sudden, loud noise to classically condition him to be afraid of the rat.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) is another psychologist associated with the behavioral perspective.
THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
The cognitive perspective posits that human behavior is determined by rational cognitive processes. It focuses on mental processing (i.e., how people come to know, understand, and think of the world around them) and the transformation of cognitive abilities over time. There are three major views within this perspective, including cognitive developmental theory, information processing theory, and sociocultural theory.
Cognitive developmental theory was formulated by psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
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Jean Piaget |
Piaget claimed that all people pass through four stages of cognitive development (the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages) and that, in each stage, they experience both quantitative and qualitative changes in their knowledge and understanding. Piaget further argued that, in children, changes in cognitive ability can be explained through the principles of assimilation and accommodation.
Information processing theory offers yet another view of cognitive development, and in particular, of how people receive, use, and store information into memory. This approach argues that development is reflected in increased memory and higher-order thinking, as well as greater efficiency in handling and processing information.
The third view within the cognitive perspective, sociocultural theory, was advanced by psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who stressed the important role played by social and cultural factors in cognitive development. In Vygotsky's view, cognitive development is contingent on children's "zone of proximal development". It proceeds when children interact with others, use tools from their culture (e.g., speech and writing), and learn socially.
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Lev Vygotsky |
THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
The humanistic perspective focuses on the self, including issues of self-esteem, personal needs, and self-fulfillment. According to this view, human behavior is influenced by people's own free will and motivation, rather than by stimuli in the environment. Thus, people have the ability to reach higher levels of maturity and naturally seek to develop to their fullest potential. Two major theorists associated with this approach are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
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Abraham Maslow http://images.google.com |
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) argued that all people have needs that they must meet in order to experience personal development and fulfilment. These needs include physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, achievement needs, and self-actualization needs. Some needs are stronger than others and must first be met before a person can address his/her other needs.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believed that people develop positive self-regard (i.e., positive self-concept, self-esteem, and self-worth) if they receive unconditional positive regard from others (i.e., unconditional attention, nurturance, love, or affection). On the other hand, if they receive conditional positive regard from others (i.e., based on conditions), they develop conditional positive self-regard (i.e., have esteem for themselves only if they meet the standards of others), and eventually fall out of touch with themselves and become neurotic.
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Carl Rogers
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Carl Rogers was also known for his contribution to the field of adult education. He formulated experiential learning theory.
THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
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Urie Bronfenbrenner |
The ecological perspective was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005). It focuses on the different social contexts in which children grow up, as well as the individuals who influence their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner, human development is influenced by five interrelated, environmental systems, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The microsystem represents the people & objects in children's immediate environment (e.g., home and school). The mesosystem represents the interconnections between different microsystems (e.g., between family and peers).The exosystem represents the different social settings that children do not experience firsthand (e.g., parents' workplace). The macrosystem represents the larger culture & different subcultures that surround children (e.g., different cultural groups and values). The chronosystem refers to the sociohistorical conditions in which children develop (e.g., the age of computers).
MILESTONES OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
From newborns to teens, children move through four developmental periods (i.e., infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence) during which they experience considerable bodily changes. While children and adolescents grow and develop at different rates, most pass through a series of predictable milestones along the way. As future educators, you should be aware of these milestones in order to design classroom activities that are developmentally appropriate for your students.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
The milestones of physical development from birth to 17 years of age are presented in table format below.
AGE | PHYSICAL MILESTONES |
Newborn |
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3 months |
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6 months |
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8 months |
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1 year |
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1 year ½ |
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2 years |
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3 years |
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4 years |
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5 years |
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6 years |
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7 years |
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8 years |
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9 years |
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10 years |
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11-12 years |
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13-17 years |
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
From infancy to adolescence, children undergo vast cognitive changes. In particular, with the passage of time, children's ability to perceive, think, understand, learn, and solve problems increases dramatically. Future educators should be cognizant of the normal, general pattern of cognitive development among children and adolescents in order to teach content and design classroom activities that not only are developmentally appropriate for students but also promote their maximum intellectual growth.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENCE
Brain Development
As children age and grow, their brain experiences many changes. First, the brain increases in size. This is related to the fact that the nerve endings of the brain are growing and the fact that myelination is taking place. During this process, which typically lasts throughout childhood, brain and central nervous system cells are wrapped in a sheath of fat cells that increases the speed at which information is transmitted across the brain. In areas of the brain that are related to hand-eye coordination, myelination is usually complete by the age of 4. In areas of the brain that are related to attention, myelination tends to be complete around the 11 or 12.
From infancy to adolescence, synaptic connections between neurons multiply dramatically. Neurons are the information-processing structures of the central nervous system. They are separated by tiny gaps called synapses through which information flows. As neurons receive input from the environment, new synapses are formed, eventually resulting in a more sophisticated system of communication and more advanced cognitive skills among children (e.g., improved memory, reasoning, and self-regulation). When neurons lack stimulation, synaptic connections disappear, a process referred to as synaptic pruning. It is not until middle to late adolescence that children have the same density of synaptic connections as that of adults.
During the first two years of life, lateralization in the left and right hemispheres of the brain occurs, whereby each hemisphere specializes in different functions. The left hemisphere controls analytical thought (e.g., logic and math) and the right side of the body whereas the right hemisphere controls language and the left side of the body. By the time children are 2, one hemisphere of their brain is dominant. However, communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain continues to improve until the age of 15.
The brain does not grow uniformly. Different regions of the brain grow at different rates. Growth of the frontal lobe, which is responsible for thinking and voluntary movement, is particularly rapid between the age of 3 and 6 but higher cognitive functioning and emotional control are not usually achieved until adolescence. Growth of the temporal and parietal lobes, which are respectively responsible for language-processing/memory and spatial orientation is especially rapid between 6 and 12.
Piaget's Theory
According to Piaget, children use psychological structures called schemas to make sense of their experiences. The latter change as children grow older, evolving from a purely sensorimotor level to an increasingly more complex mental level. This happens as a result of organization and adaptation. All children have the need to organize their experiences in order to make sense of them. Furthermore, children also adapt their schemas. When they do so, two processes take place: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when children integrate new information into existing schemas. Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemas to the environment.
Piaget further affirmed that children pass through four stages of cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2). In this stage, infants' intelligence is demonstrated through their movements. Around 7 months of age, children acquire object permanency. They know that an object continues to exist when it is out of their sight.
- Pre-operational stage (2-7). In this stage, children acquire language skills and their memory and imagination develop. Their intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols (words and images) and their thinking is primarily egocentric, non-logical, and non-reversible (i.e., they believe that quantity changes as shapes change).
- Concrete operational stage (7-12). In this stage, children start to generalize from their concrete experiences. They do so through the logical manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Egocentric thinking starts to decrease while reversible thinking is achieved.
- Formal operational stage (Adolescence to adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents and young adults become capable of abstract thinking.
Vygotsky also believed that children actively construct knowledge and that social interaction plays a crucial role in the cognitive development of children. In his view, children learn and make sense of their experiences by interacting with people and their environment and using the tools of their culture (e.g., language). A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is that cognitive development occurs within the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development represents the gap between children's current level of development and their potential level of development. Thus, children will learn new skills when the latter are slightly beyond their current level of development and if they work under the guidance of adults who demonstrate how to use these skills and coach children through skill mastery (i.e., a teaching strategy called scaffolding).
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
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As children grow older, their linguistic skills become increasingly more complex. Language development is tied to cognitive development. The more language skills children acquire, the more their cognitive abilities increase. Language development is also critical to children's success in school. It is therefore important for all future educators to understand how students' language abilities develop. This will help them to communicate effectively with their students and to deliver instructional content that furthers students' intellectual growth.
Stages of First Language Acquisition
Children acquire competencies in their native language as they progress through seven stages.
In stage 1, before being born, fetuses can hear the mother's voice. Shortly after birth, infants show a preference for voices they heard prior to being born.
In stage 2, around 3 months of age, infants begin to coo. They produce vowel-like sounds.
In stage 3, between 4-5 months of age, infants begin to babble. They produce single syllables. Around 6-7 months of age, they start to produce several syllables.
In stage 4, around 1 year of age, infants begin to produce one-word utterances. By the time they are 1 year 1/2 , they possess a vocabulary of up to 100 words.
In stage 5, at approximately 2 ½ years of age, children start to produce two-word utterances. This is also when they begin to develop a rudimentary understanding of syntax (e.g., rules for combining words). Their vocabulary includes over 300 words.
In stage 6, around the age of 3, children begin to use telegraphic speech (i.e., short sentences that are made up of 2-3 words and use simple syntax). Their vocabulary includes about 1,000 words.
In stage 7, around the age of 4, children's speech begins to resemble that of adults but is more simplified. By the age of 10, children's language is comparable to that of adults with the exception of vocabulary and grammar which remain less developed. By the time they enter adolescence, teenagers possess the same language abilities as adults.
PROMOTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANTS
Starting in early childhood, it is crucial for parents to promote language development in their children by regularly talking to them. This will help infants to rapidly acquire language skills and also promote their cognitive development.
THEORIES OF FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The Behavioral Approach
According to this perspective, children acquire their native language by imitating the speech patterns that they hear from people in their environment and by being rewarded for using language correctly.
The Nativist Approach
According to this approach, human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) or are prewired to learn their first language. Furthermore, proponents of this approach suggest that there are critical periods during which language development should take place. This may influence whether or not a child speaks a language with an accent.
PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
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With the passage of time, as the cognitive skills of children and adolescents develop, their self-concept, attitudes, and relationships with people also change. It is essential for educators to understand children's social, and emotional development if they are to effectively teach, motivate, and interact with students of different ages.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
According to Erik Erikson, people experience eight different stages of psychosocial development. In each one of these stages, they are confronted with psychological crises that they have to resolve. If they successfully address the psychological crisis that is characteristic in a given stage, they can move on to the next stage and take on new challenges. If they do not successfully address this psychological crisis, they will have to continue to address it later on in life.
The eight stages of psychosocial development are stage 1: trust vs. mistrust; stage 2: autonomy vs. doubt; stage 3: initiative vs. guilt; stage 4: industry vs. inferiority; stage 5: identity vs. role confusion; stage 6: intimacy vs. isolation; stage 7: generativity vs. stagnation; stage 8: integrity vs. despair. We will review the stages of psychosocial development experienced by children and adolescents, namely stages 1 through 5.
Stage 1, Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-age 1)
In this stage, the challenge for infants is to develop a sense of trust in the world. If parents consistently address the needs of infants (e.g., need for food, warmth, and affection), infants will develop trust in their parents (i.e., secure attachment) and will subsequently learn to trust their environment. If parents fail to consistently address the needs of infants, infants will develop mistrust towards their parents, as well as towards themselves, other people, and their environment.
Stage 2, Autonomy vs. Doubt (age 1-2)
In this stage, as children learn to walk, talk, and do things for themselves, they are challenged to become more independent from others. If parents encourage their children to become more independent and provide them with reassurance when they make mistakes, children will develop confidence in dealing with various situations. If parents discourage their children from becoming more independent or are overprotective, children may become ashamed of their behavior , doubt their abilities, and lack self-confidence.
Stage 3, Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
In this stage, as children develop their motor skills and interact more and more with other people, they have to learn to balance their desire to take initiative and to control their impulses. If parents encourage their children to take initiative and are consistent in disciplining them, children will learn that certain behaviors are permitted and others are not and will not experience a sense of guilt or shame for using their imagination. If parents do not encourage their children to take initiative or are not consistent in disciplining their children, children may harbor the belief that independence is wrong and develop a sense of guilt.
Stage 4, Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
In this stage, children typically attend school and are challenged to learn new knowledge and skills and to get along with peers. If children take pleasure in intellectual stimulation, productivity, and academic success, they will develop a sense of competence. If they do not take pleasure in intellectual stimulation, productivity, and academic success, they will develop a sense of inferiority.
Stage 5, Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18)
In this stage, teenagers have to figure out who they are and to form their identity. This requires them to have successfully resolved all prior conflicts. If teenagers are able to overcome the challenge, they will form a strong identity. If they are unable to overcome the challenge, they will feel confused and be unable to make decisions and choices related to their future life (e.g., career).
Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, human beings develop their moral reasoning by moving through 6 stages of moral development. He identified three levels of moral reasoning (i.e., the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels) that are each divided into two stages of moral development.
The Preconventional Level
The preconventional level of moral reasoning is usually the level at which children of elementary school age function. At this level, children determine what is right or wrong based on the consequences of their actions.
In stage 1 of the preconventional level, children abide by socially acceptable norms because of the expectations that are placed on them by authority figures (e.g., parents or teachers) and to avoid punishment. When children avoid punishment, they learn that their behavior is morally appropriate. When they are punished, they learn that their behavior is morally inappropriate.
In stage 2 of the preconventional level, children have a self-serving attitude. They define right behavior on the basis of what benefits them and are only interested in the need of others when it serves their own interest.
The Conventional Level
This level of moral reasoning is called "conventional" because it represents the level at which most people function. It is characteristic of adolescents and adults and includes stages 3 and 4 of moral development.
In stage 3, people engage in certain behaviors to obtain the approval of others. They judge the morality of their actions by evaluating how they impact their relationships with people.
In stage 2 of the conventional level, people typically abide by the law and respond to the obligations of duty because they know that this benefits society.
The Postconventional Level
According to Kohlberg, few adults attain the postconventional level of moral reasoning which consists of stages 5 and 6.
In stage 5, people determine what is morally right or wrong in accordance with their own principles about social justice. Actions that violate these principles are considered wrong.
In stage 6, people judge what is right or wrong through abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles.
REFERENCES
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Erikson, E (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Freud, S. (1920). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York: Boni & Liverwright.
kleinen2012. Bronfenbrenner's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=me7103oIE-g
Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
Piaget, J. (1960). The child's conception of the world. N.J., Littlefield: Adams.
Rogers, C.R. and Stevens, B. (1968). Person to person: The problem of being human. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1930/1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Watson, J. (1925). Behaviorism. New York: Norton.
