INTELLIGENCE
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The concept of intelligence and what it is has been the subject of heated controversy for close to a century but scholars have yet to agree on a single definition of intelligence. Rather, scholars offer multiple definitions of intelligence. As future teachers, it is important for you to be aware of how intelligence is defined in the literature if you are to have a broad understanding of intelligence and to develop lesson plans and assessment activities that effectively exercise your students' intellectual abilities.
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
The following definition of intelligence represents a composite from the literature. Intelligence can be defined as the ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems. Learning here refers to both formal and informal learning that takes place via education, training, and everyday experiences. Adaptability, on the other hand, is the ability to adjust one's behavior to perform new tasks. Problem-solving refers to the finding of solutions and completion of tasks and complex projects.
The above definition of intelligence does not reflect all of the characteristics of intelligence identified by scholars. It represents a very broad definition of intelligence. In particular, some scholars argue that intelligence is based on prior learning and experience; that it involves multiple forms (e.g., different skills and talents); that it is manifested in different contexts (e.g., academically or socially); and that it is specific to a given culture and may not be viewed in the same light in another culture.
HOW INTELLIGENCE IS MEASURED
Psychologists have been measuring intelligence for over a century. As tomorrow's teachers, it is quite likely that you will have students in your classes who will be tested by the school psychologist.
The first intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet in France during the early 20th century to identify students who had difficulty learning in school. Binet advanced the concept of mental age (i.e., a person's level of mental development in relation to other people), which would later be called "IQ".
Since those days, the Binet test has been revised by psychologists from Stanford University and is now called the Stanford-Binet test. This test is one of the most widely administered tests of intelligence. It is administered individually from the age of two through adulthood and requires subjects to provide verbal answers and complete tasks. The test yields a score for verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract visual reasoning, and short-term memory, as well as a general IQ score.
Another test of intelligence that is widely used is the Wechsler Scales. There are three different tests designed for three different age groups. The WPPSI-R (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised) is for children aged 4 to 6 ½. The WISC-R (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised) is for children and adolescents between the age of 6 and 16. The WAIS-R (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised) is for anyone above 16. The test yields verbal and performance IQs, as well as an overall IQ.
Nowadays, a number of group intelligence tests are also available such as the Kuhlman-Anderson Intelligence Tests. Rather than being administered individually, these tests are administered to a group of people and therefore entail limitations since the examiner cannot individually observe the subjects being tested.
Psychologists consider intelligence tests to be reliable (i.e., they consistently measure intelligence) and valid (i.e., they measure what they were intended to measure). In particular, psychologists believe that the tests provide an accurate picture of an individual's cognitive functioning.
Some scholars, on the other hand, disagree and argue that the tests do not fully measure intelligence. They also believe that the tests are culturally biased towards certain ethnic and racial groups and therefore lack objectivity because they were standardized on Caucasian, middle-class individuals and were written in a language that may not be understood by everyone.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
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Over the course of history, scholars have disagreed about the nature of intelligence and proposed different theories of intelligence. As future teachers, it is important for you to understand how scholars conceive of intelligence in order to maximize your students' intellectual potential in the classroom.
HOW THEORISTS CONCEPTUALIZE INTELLIGENCE
Spearman
Charles Spearman (1863-1945) advanced the first psychometric theory of intelligence, a two-factor theory of intelligence. He proposed that intelligence is made up of "g", a general intelligence involved in the completion of all tasks, and of "s", specific abilities that relate to specific tasks. Spearman's work paved the way for using statistical methods in the study of intelligence.
Sternberg
Robert Sternberg offers a triarchic view of intelligence. According to him, intelligence comprises three forms: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. Analytical intelligence is the ability to think abstractly and to reason logically. Creative intelligence is the ability to create and invent. Practical intelligence refers to the ability to use knowledge in the real world.
Perkins
Some theorists such as David Perkins believe that intelligent thinking and behavior are contingent on the physical and social support systems that people have. This concept is referred to as distributed intelligence. According to Perkins, people distribute their thinking and thus think more intelligently if they are able to use physical objects (e.g., technology) and symbolic systems in their culture (e.g., diagrams), and work with others when solving problems.
Gardner
Howard Gardner (a professor at Harvard University) believes that intelligence is made up of multiple abilities. During the 1980s, he developed a theory of multiple intelligences which refuted the notion that human intelligence entails two primary forms, namely verbal and logical/mathematical intelligence. Instead, Gardner affirmed that the intellectual potential of human beings can entail up to 9 different forms of intelligence.
The 9 forms of intelligence are:
1) linguistic intelligence or the ability to use words and language (e.g., listening, speaking, writing, story telling)
2) logical/mathematical intelligence – the ability to use numbers, reason, and use logic (e.g., performing mathematical calculations, solving problems)
3) visual/spatial intelligence – the ability to perceive visual information and to think in pictures (e.g., reading, understanding charts, creating metaphors)
4) bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence – the ability to use one's body and hands in a skillful manner (e.g., physical coordination, sports, hands-on activities)
5) musical intelligence or the ability to appreciate, play, and compose music (e.g., musical ear)
6) interpersonal intelligence – the ability to understand others and see things from their perspective (e.g., being aware of other people's thoughts and feelings)
7) intrapersonal intelligence – the ability to analyze and understand oneself (e.g., being aware of one's strengths and weaknesses)
8) naturalist intelligence - the ability to recognize and classify plants, animals, minerals, and/or cultural artefacts
9) existential intelligence - the ability to think about philosophical questions and use intuition
COGNITIVE STYLES
Among the differences that today's students bring to the classroom are differences in cognitive styles. This places increasing challenges on instructors to adjust or modify the way that they teach and assess learning in order to support academic success among students with different cognitive styles.
COGNITIVE STYLES AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
What is a cognitive style?
A cognitive style is a disposition towards thinking. It represents the particular way that an individual perceives and processes information, solves problems, and makes decisions. According to Herman Witkin, a psychologist who helped to develop the theory of cognitive styles, not all individuals approach thinking in the same way. Some people are field independent and others are field dependent.
Field-independent individuals are analytical thinkers who can easily extract details from their surrounding context. They tend to be intrinsically motivated, as well as task-oriented, and prefer to work alone. They are often perceived as "socially distant". Field-dependent individuals, on the other hand, are holistic thinkers who look at the environment from a global perspective. They like structure, tend to be outgoing, and enjoy social interaction.
Research has shown that culture plays an important role in shaping students' cognitive styles. In particular, people from cultures that emphasize individualism (e.g., Western cultures), tend to become field-independent whereas people from cultures that stress collectivity (e.g., non-Western cultures), tend to become field-dependent.
Psychologist Jerome Kagan also identified another cognitive style model, that of Reflectivity vs. Impulsivity. Individuals who are reflective thinkers respond to situations slowly; consider alternatives; and make few mistakes. Those who are impulsive thinkers respond quickly and make many mistakes. Research has shown that reflective thinkers do better on academic tasks that require careful reflection. Impulsive thinkers tend to have an edge on school-related activities that call for spontaneous decision-making (e.g., team sports).
How do cognitive styles impact students' academic performance?
Over the years, a large body of research has documented the impact of cognitive styles on students' academic performance. In particular, research has shown that field independents tend to perform better than field dependents on objective tests in different subject areas. This has been attributed to their unique ability to analyze information and separate important details from their context. Field-dependents, in contrast, tend to experience difficulties with their attention to detail. Furthermore, research has shown that most high-achieving students tend to have field-independent thinking styles.
The above findings have significant relevance for teaching and promoting students' academic success. It is essential for teachers to plan classroom activities that:
- Address students' differences in perceiving and processing information
- Exercise different approaches to thinking (i.e., both analytical and holistic thinking)
- Develop students' ability to think both analytically and holistically
REFERENCES
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Ormrod, J. & Jones, B. (2018). Essentials of educational psychology: Big ideas to guide effective teaching (5th ed.) Boston: Pearson.
Perkins, D. (1995). Outsmarting IQ: The emerging science of learnable intelligence. New York: Free Press.
Santrock, J. (2018). Educational psychology (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Sattler, J. (1992). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher.
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. New York: Macmillan.
Sternberg, R. (2002). Intelligence: the triarchic theory of intelligence. In J. W. Guthrie (Ed.), Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Thurstone, L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
