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The purpose of school is to help students learn the knowledge and skills that they need for successful participation in society. What exactly does it mean "to learn"? As simple a process learning may appear, the root of understanding how people learn is not as straightforward. The fact that the literature offers various definitions and theories of learning attests to the complexity of this process. It is important for future educators to understand what it means "to learn and to be engaged in learning" if they are to orchestrate the optimal conditions for this process to take place.
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Depending on the school of thought, learning is defined in different ways. This is because different theorists focus on different aspects of the learning process. This also stems from the fact that the scope of learning is fairly broad.
Learning not only takes place in school but also in the different contexts in which children, adolescents, and adults experience the world around them. In addition, although learning primarily is an individual act in that students place their own stamp on how they learn, what they learn and when they learn (i.e., have a preferred learning style), learning also results from collaboration with others.
Despite diverging views about the nature of learning, it is possible to derive a general definition of learning. Learning is a change in the behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills of students that takes place as a result of experience.
MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING
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How do people learn? In an attempt to explain this phenomenon, scholars have, over the course of time, advanced numerous theories of learning. The literature on learning includes more than twenty five different theoretical perspectives on learning. In this unit, we will review two major perspectives to learning, namely the behavioral and cognitive perspectives. As future teachers, it is critical that you understand the principles of learning according to different schools of thought in order to apply theory into practice and to enable your students to do well in school.
THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
Behaviorists define learning as the acquisition of new behavior. According to B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), behavior is contingent on consequences and can be controlled through the use of operant conditioning (i.e., feedback system). In particular, positive reinforcement (e.g., reward or praise) leads to the increase of desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement strengthens desirable behavior through the avoidance of negative consequences. To the contrary, punishment decreases the occurrence of undesirable behavior.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
Within this approach, there are four theories of learning that are of interest to educators, including, social learning theory, information-processing theory, constructivist theory, and social constructivist theory.
Social Learning Theory
This theory is associated with Bandura (1925-present) who believes that learning can take place at the cognitive level through observational learning. In his view, students learn from observing models and what happens to them when they engage in different behaviors that lead to different consequences (i.e., vicarious reinforcement). In order to learn, students need to pay attention to the model and his/her behavior, to retain information symbolically (e.g., verbally or visually), to possess the motor and cognitive skills necessary to replicate the behavior, and to be motivated to model the behavior. Students typically learn when they value the consequences of a given behavior. Bandura agrees with Skinner about the role played by reinforcement in learning.
Information-Processing Theory
Information-processing theorists argue that the human mind is like a computer in that it takes in, processes, stores and retrieves information. As children grow older, they become more efficient at processing information (e.g., forming concepts, solving problems, and using mnemonic strategies). This allows them to learn increasingly complex knowledge and skills.
One of the proponents of this approach is George Miller. From his perspective, after a person receives information via a sensory receptor (e.g., eyes), the information is either discarded or sent to short-term memory. This depends on whether or not the person is concentrating on the information. Once in short-term memory, the information is divided into small "chunks" (i.e., about 5-9) and remains there for about twenty seconds. Chunks of information that are rehearsed, repeated, or organized by the person are retained and transferred to long-term memory. Those that are not rehearsed, repeated or organized are forgotten.
Constructivist Theory
Constructivist theory is associated with Jean Piaget and his research on the cognitive development of children. According to Piaget, as children interact with their physical and social environments, they construct "mental maps" or schemas to make sense of their experiences. With time, children's cognitive structures become more and more sophisticated. In the sensorimotor stage (birth – 2), children learn to perceive and identify people and objects through physical interaction with their environment. In the preoperational stage (2-7), children think in symbolic terms (e.g., use language) and learn intuitively. In the concrete operational stage (7-11), children think logically if they have access to concrete referents. In the formal operational stage (11-15), children's cognitive structures are similar to those of adults and allow them to engage in abstract reasoning.
Piaget believed that children learn through the process of assimilation and accommodation. When children have a new experience (e.g., come across a new object), they either assimilate it into an existing schema or accommodate it by creating a new schema.
Social Constructivist Theory
Social constructivist theory was advanced by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) who viewed learning as a cultural and collaborative process. From his perspective, children learn by interacting with people (e.g., parents and teachers) and society at large (i.e., social events and media). To do so, they use the tools of their culture (e.g., speech and writing). According to Vygotsky, social learning promotes children's cognitive development, a phenomenon he referred to as the "Zone of Proximal Development". The zone of proximal development represents the distance between what children know (i.e., their level of actual development) and what they can learn under the guidance of adults or through collaboration with peers (i.e., their level of potential development). Using a teaching strategy called "scaffolding", adults can help children to learn by demonstrating tasks and coaching them through the steps necessary for completing tasks until they can perform on their own.
CONTEXTS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING
Learning does not happen in a vacuum. It takes place in different contexts within and outside of school.
Different contexts impact students' learning process, including the academic, social, cultural, technological, and societal contexts in which students are immersed.
The Academic Context
The primary academic context that influences learning is the classroom environment. It includes the type of learning environment that the teacher establishes, stimuli provided to students, teaching methods employed, classroom management techniques used, and types of activities that students participate in. Students tend to thrive in learning environments that are positive and motivating, reward good behavior, and implement active learning, By and large, students tend to learn and imitate behaviors that result in positive consequences and they tend to avoid behaviors that result in negative consequences. It is therefore important for the teacher to use positive reinforcement, as well as teaching methods that address different learning styles and require students to "learn by doing" and to apply what they learn.
Social Interaction
Learning is also influenced through students' social interaction with peers and teachers. Interacting with peers allows students to discuss and explain concepts, coach each other, and "construct knowledge" using their own level of language. Student-teacher interaction allows students to further refine their understanding of concepts through scaffolding, demonstrations, reviews, guided practice, and discussions. It is crucial for teachers to provide students with numerous opportunities for interaction in order to allow students to make sense of their learning experiences.
Culture
Culture is omnipresent in the learning environment. It influences the world views, values, and learning styles of students and also shapes classroom expectations with respect to thinking and behavior. Sometimes, students may experience a mismatch between the school and home cultures. This can prevent students from effectively adjusting and negatively impact school performance (e.g., school holds the same expectations for boys and girls but the home culture expects different behaviors from boys and girls). It is important for teachers to encourage positive behaviors and different ways of knowing in order to help students adjust to the world of school.
Technology
Technology also affects student learning as it allows students to learn beyond classroom walls in the world at large via the Internet. It also addresses different learning preferences and should be used in the classroom to engage today's generation of millennial students (i.e., students born between the 1980s and 2000 who grew up in a technologically rich society).
Society
The various societal contexts in which students are involved powerfully impact student learning, including their family environment (e.g., class background, medical care, nutrition, and intellectual stimulation) and community resources and programs (e.g., the quality of the school attended and use of resources such as libraries and parks). In the classroom, it is important for teachers to make sure that students' physical and psychological needs are addressed (Maslow's hierarchy of needs) and to provide students with information related to community resources.
RELATING LEARNING THEORY TO CLASSROOM PRACTICE
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Different theoretical perspectives about how people learn have been advanced by scholars. Two of the major contemporary perspectives on learning are the behavioral approach and the cognitive approach. We have reviewed both approaches in a prior unit. How do these perspectives relate to the classroom? In this unit, we will examine the implications of these two approaches for teaching. It is important for future teachers to understand how to implement theory into practice so as to facilitate learning among students.
The Behavioral approach
Skinner advanced the theory that the consequences of actions are important for controlling behavior. The implications of his theory for education are that teachers should use reinforcement as a classroom management technique. They can use positive reinforcement (e.g., rewards) and negative reinforcement (e.g., withholding an unpleasant consequence) to increase desirable behavior. When necessary, they can use punishment to decrease undesirable behavior.
In another respect, the behavioral approach can be used to teach and reinforce basic skills in students. Teachers can do so by rewarding students for correct answers on drill-and-practice exercises. This will help them to memorize the skills.
The Cognitive Approach
Social Learning Theory
Bandura suggested that students learn from observing others and the consequences of their behavior. Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
First of all, teachers should discuss the consequences of different behaviors with their students to increase the occurrence of desirable behavior. They can also use modelling (i.e., demonstration, practice, feedback) as a strategy for teaching new behavior. They should always model appropriate behaviors themselves and try to expose their students to a variety of role- models. In addition, they should convey the message that all students can learn and engage their students in activities where they can experience success in order to develop a sense of self-efficacy in them.
Information-Processing Theory
Teachers should create a supportive learning environment where students feel comfortable asking questions and making mistakes. Instruction should be structured and focus students' attention on important concepts, as well as meaning. Numerous concrete examples should be provided and instructional media should be incorporated into teaching. Teachers should help students to connect what they are learning with what they already know and provide cognitive scaffolding, recognizing that students learn with more knowledgeable others. They should provide for repetition and review of information, give students time, encouragement, and support.
Constructivist Theory
Piaget proposed that children construct their own understandings of the world around them. Piaget's theory emphasizes the need for instruction that is developmentally appropriate and requires students to interact with their environment, explore, and make sense of their experiences. This is necessary to enhance students' logical and conceptual growth. It can be achieved by engaging students in activities that require them to solve problems, role-play situations, use technology, and complete authentic tasks. Organizing the classroom into different learning centers can also be useful.
Social Constructivist Theory
Vygotsky believed that children learn from interacting with others, as well as their environment. The implications of his theory for education are that teachers should create numerous opportunities for students to work collaboratively, explore, and solve real-life problems. Teachers should also use scaffolding as a technique for teaching new knowledge and skills to students. This means that teachers need to be aware of their student's zone of proximal development, to coach students, and to demonstrate skills until students master them. Online activities can provide scaffolding in the form of visual examples and links to more information.
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
Ormrod, J. & Jones, B. (2018). Essentials of educational psychology: Big ideas to guide effective teaching (5th ed.) Boston: Pearson.
Piaget, J. (1970). The science of education and the psychology of the child. NY: Grossman.
Santrock, J. (2018). Educational psychology (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Skinner, B. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
Skinner, B. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
