INTRODUCTION
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Today's elementary and secondary school students come from diverse backgrounds and subsequently bring a variety of differences to the classroom. Over the years, increased diversity in U.S. schools has challenged teachers to adjust their instructional methods in order to effectively serve the needs of diverse learners. It is important for pre-professional teachers to gain an understanding of students' individual and group differences and their impact on the teaching and learning process if they are to create classroom environments that support learning among diverse learners.
LEARNER DIFFERENCES & IMPACT
Among the various differences that today's students bring to the classroom are differences in ethnicity/race, culture, socioeconomic status, gender/sexual identity, religion, language, ability, cognitive styles, and learning preferences. These differences can powerfully impact students' cultural identity, as well as educational process, depending on the particular climate of the school in which they are enrolled and teachers' attitudes, expectations, and educational practices.
ETHNICITY & RACE
U.S. schools are ethnically and racially diverse. Around 51% of all students enrolled in K12 school systems are Caucasian and 49% are Latinx, African-American, Asian/Pacific Islander, or American Indian. In some states, such as Arizona, California, the District of Columbia, New Mexico, and Texas, minority students represent the largest number of students in attendance. It is anticipated that, in the future, U.S. schools will continue to diversify.
Ethnicity and race can negatively affect students in school if teachers have lower expectations for students from ethnic and racial groups or harbor prejudiced attitudes.
CULTURE
Today's classrooms are culturally diverse. They are comprised of students with different cultural practices, value systems, communication styles, and learning styles. In the multicultural classroom setting, it is essential for teachers to establish supportive learning environments in order to foster positive intercultural relations with diverse learners and facilitate their learning. This requires teachers to:
If teachers are unable to create this type of learning environment, cultural differences are likely to clash; have a negative impact on communication; and even arrest learning.
COMMUNICATION STYLES
Students who come from different cultural groups demonstrate different ways of communicating through verbal language, facial expressions, gestures, and body language. It is important for teachers to become familiar with different cultural norms related to verbal and nonverbal communication if they are to effectively understand and communicate with their students. For example, children from Asian cultures tend to avoid eye contact with their teachers out of respect. If teachers are unaware of this cultural pattern, they may attribute the behavior to a sign of disrespect.
LEARNING STYLES
Multicultural students typically demonstrate different learning styles. A learning style is defined as a learning preference. It represents the particular approach and sensory modality that a student prefers to use in order to learn.
While there exist different learning style models, Paul Fleming's VARK Model is widely accepted in the academic community. According to Fleming, there are 4 basic learning styles, namely auditory, visual, read/write, and kinesthetic learners (VARK).
Research has also shown that African American, Latinx, and American Indian students tend to enjoy verbal tasks and group work. Euro-American and Asian American students, on the other hand, prefer analytical tasks and individual work. It is therefore important for teachers to address the different learning styles present in the classroom through a variety of teaching and assessment methods that will support learning.
FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE
Multicultural students also bring multiple forms of intelligence to the classroom. According to Howard Gardner, a professor at Harvard University, human beings can be endowed with up to nine different forms of intelligence. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences refutes the commonly held notion that human intelligence entails only two primary forms, namely verbal and logical/mathematical intelligence. The nine forms of intelligence are:
Gardner also believes that culture "defines the stages and fixes the limits of individual achievement". As an example, because Mexican American culture places a strong emphasis on family and community, many Mexican American students develop a strong, interpersonal intelligence. It is thus essential for teachers to teach to multiple intelligences via a wide variety of classroom activities in order to allow students to continue to develop their stronger forms of intelligence and improve their less strong forms of intelligence.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Many of today's students also come from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds. Students who are from socioeconomically disadvantaged families and live in poverty may experience a number of challenges and/or difficulties in school that prevent them from fully participating in and reaping the benefits of their educational process. For example, some students may be hungry and stressed or lack academic preparedness. It is therefore imperative that teachers reflect on their attitudes and expectations towards disadvantaged students and not systematically attribute students' challenges and/or difficulties to lack of ability. It is also crucial for teachers to implement strategies (e.g., differentiated instruction) that can break the barriers of poverty and effectively empower students for academic success. This is a matter of social justice and equity.
GENDER
Males and females present differences in the lateralization of their brain function. This means that they prefer to process information on different sides of the brain. Studies show that females tend to be left-brain dominant and males, right-brain dominant. The left side of the brain controls language and logical reasoning and the right side of the brain controls spatial functions and creativity. This explains why females perform better on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading tests and males on the NAEP math tests.
Recently, research that involved the brain imaging of about 1,000 teenagers also showed that the male brain has more neural connections within each hemisphere from the front to the back parts of the brain whereas the female brain has more neural connections between hemispheres from the left to the right sides of the brain. This suggests that the male brain is also optimized for motor skills and the female brain for analytical thinking.
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Top picture shows neural connections in blue within each hemisphere of a male brain. Lower picture shows neural connections in orange across both hemispheres of a female brain.
Researchers further agree that male and female students can learn to use both hemispheres of their brain. Teachers must therefore address the different cognitive styles of male and female students if they are to support their learning.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Students vary with respect to their sexual orientation. Some are heterosexual and others identify as LGBTQIA+:
Unfortunately, many students who identify as LGBTQIA+ have negative experiences in school and are often target to harassment, bullying and/or discrimination. It is teachers' professional obligation to create inclusive learning environments where students can thrive and feel safe. Teachers should also role-model and teach respect and orchestrate the conditions that will support students' personal development and academic success.
RELIGION
In the classroom, students manifest a variety of religious backgrounds. Teachers should always strive to create a positive learning environment where students' religious differences are respected and accepted. They should always act as professional role-models who embrace diversity, are neutral about religious matters, and teach school curricula in an objective and non-abrasive manner.
LANGUAGE
Many of today's students are second language learners whose native language is other than English. In this group, a significant number of students are in the process of learning English (i.e., ELLs or English Language Learners) and require special language services such as ESOL instruction (English for Speakers of Other Languages). Language barriers can result in communication problems and lead to a break down of the learning process. To prevent this from happening, teachers should always provide linguistic and visual support to second language learners (e.g., hand-outs, pictures, and illustrations) so that they can follow and understand content. Teachers can also pair second language learners with students who are fluent in English and the same native language. Many technology tools can also be used in the classroom to address the language and academic needs of non-native English speakers.
ABILITY
Today's students also vary in terms of their particular abilities and disabilities. At one end of the spectrum, some students may be gifted and, at the other end of the spectrum, some students may have severe disabilities. Approximately 14% of all students from age 3 to 21 are exceptional learners who receive special education services in gifted/talented programs (e.g., accelerated programs, independent study, and magnet programs) or in self-contained or general education classes.
With the increasing inclusion of exceptional students in general education classrooms, it is critical for teachers to establish positive learning environments; cultivate positive attitudes; and address students' special needs via varied teaching strategies, accommodations, and assistive technologies. This will help all exceptional students to become more self-actualized (i.e., reach their fullest potential).
TYPES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
In the United States, approximately 14% of all students from age 3 to 21 are exceptional learners who receive special education services. In the past decade, there has been a trend toward including exceptional students in the general education classroom. This has placed new demands on teachers who teach general education classes. It is thus critical for pre-professional teachers to know how to create inclusive learning environments that will support exceptional learners' development. In this module, we will explore what the term "exceptionality" means and the different types of exceptionalities.
DEFINITION OF EXCEPTIONALITY
In the context of school, exceptionality refers to students who differ from the norm in that they have a disability or are gifted and talented and require special education services.
TYPES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
There are different types of exceptionalities, including sensory impairments, physical disorders, speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, emotional and behavioral disorders, and giftedness.
Sensory impairments are visual or hearing problems
Physical disabilities include disabilities such as cerebral palsy and seizure disorders (e.g., epilepsy).
Speech and language impairments involve stuttering, articulation problems, voice disorders, or difficulties with comprehension or expression.
Intellectual disability is a condition that involves low intelligence (e.g., Down syndrome or brain damage).
Learning disabilities include difficulties with concentration, information-processing, writing, reading, speaking, and/or memory.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is a disability characterized by lack of attention or hyperactivity and impulsivity.
Emotional and behavioral disorders involve aggressive or dangerous behaviors and/or intense depression, anxiety, and phobias.
IDENTIFYING EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS
Exceptional students are typically identified through testing. Testing determines the intellectual quotient (IQ) of students and diagnoses any disabilities or impairments that they may have. Testing also determines if students are eligible for special education services. It is important for pre-professional teachers to understand the identification and placement process of exceptional learners if they are to effectively serve the needs of these students.
IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
In the United States, teachers oftentimes refer students for testing if they suspect that students have a learning or behavior problem. The referral is usually made on the basis of low academic performance, below-average scores on standardized tests, and/or disruptive classroom behavior.
After obtaining permission from parents/guardians, the school psychologist conducts a psycho-educational assessment of the student to ascertain if they have a disability or impairment. The school psychologist uses a combination of psychometric tests (e.g., Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales), achievement tests, and behavior rating scales, and obtains information about the student from teachers, parents/guardians, and other relevant parties.
If the school psychologist diagnoses the student with a disability or impairment and determines that the student is eligible for special education services, a recommendation about the student's educational placement will be made and an Individual Education Plan (IEP) will be developed with an ESE team. The student's progress will subsequently be monitored and reviewed by an in-school review committee (ISRC) that consists of a psycho-educational consultant, social worker, speech-language pathologist, and resource teacher.
If the student has a high IQ and is gifted, they will be placed in a program for the gifted and talented if one is available in the school or school district that the student attends. In this particular setting, the student will be provided with a challenging and enriched education.
Watch a video about the special education process:
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