Setting standards in education is a difficult task, but an important one. Standards are not a new idea; they have been around since the first classroom was established. Over the years, standards have been developed for teacher education candidates and different content areas and grade levels. It is important for pre-professional teachers to know which standards are used in the public school system in which they plan to teach.
EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS & THEIR IMPORTANCE
Educational standards are academic benchmarks that students must attain in different subject areas from Kindergarten to 12th grade. They have been developed both at the national and state level.
Standards play an important role in education as they:
- Articulate goals for student performance
- Provide a basis for developing curriculum benchmarks that will help students meet specific levels of content knowledge
- Form the basis for developing assessments to measure students' attainment of academic benchmarks
- Represent a recognizable progression from one grade level to the next
Educational standards have also been developed for pre-professional teachers, setting minimal competencies that they need to demonstrate prior to entering the teaching profession in different states around the nation.
CONTENT STANDARDS
Educational standards have also been developed to guide curriculum development in different disciplines. They have been developed at the district, state, and national levels. Some standards were developed for grades K-12 while others were developed for different grade levels (e.g., K-4, 5-8, and 9-12). In the State of Florida, the educational standards used are the B.E.S.T. Standards (Benchmarks for Excellent Student Thinking). Teachers use these to develop their lesson plans and teach the benchmarks that students are supposed to master in different subject areas and grade levels.
STANDARDS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION CANDIDATES
Most states around the nation require teacher education candidates to pass standards-based examinations in order to teach in public school settings. These examinations require pre-professional educators to demonstrate subject area knowledge, as well as pedagogical knowledge. This helps to ensure that teachers are proficient in their subject and in pedagogy.
TRADITIONAL CURRICULA AND TEACHING METHODS
Although the curriculum for elementary and secondary education is determined by individual states and therefore may entail variations with respect to general education requirements and electives, there are common courses that students take in every state across the nation.
At the elementary level (grades K-5), some of the subjects typically taught are: reading, writing, arithmetic, physical education, art, and music.
At the secondary level, in middle school (grades 6-8) and high school (grades 9-12), students are also required to take mandatory subjects and electives. The number of mandatory subjects and electives varies from state to state but across the nation, students generally take courses in English, math, science, social studies, and physical education. In addition, they take elective courses in foreign languages, technology, visual and performing arts, and more. In many states, these courses are offered as honors and/or advanced placement courses (i.e., they teach a more advanced level and are more challenging to students).
There are a variety of instructional strategies that are commonly used by teachers in the classroom. Among these are cooperative learning, project-based learning, contextualized teaching, and culturally responsive teaching. Many teachers today also infuse technology into the teaching and learning process.
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy that requires students to complete classroom work in small groups. In each group, students are individually accountable for the success of their group. This means that each student is expected to master material and to help other group members learn the same material. Students achieve this by explaining the material to each other and contributing to a group project.
As a teaching strategy, cooperative learning is most appropriate for in-class and out-of-class projects, as well as lab work. It requires teachers to carefully plan all cooperative learning activities. Research shows that cooperative learning is an effective instructional strategy that improves students' motivation, self-esteem, academic performance, school retention, and intercultural relations.
Three commonly used cooperative learning techniques are:
Watch a video about cooperative learning:
Project-based learning (PBL) is a teaching strategy that requires students to collaborate in groups; investigate and solve real-life problems; create a product that illustrates what they learned (e.g., video documentary); and share the product with the rest of the class.
As a strategy, project-based learning is most effective when it is aligned with educational standards and requires students to use higher-order thinking and make real-world connections.
This technique has been shown to improve students' motivation, critical thinking, decision-making, and retention of concepts. It also addresses the different learning styles and forms of intelligence of diverse learners.
Watch a video about project-based learning:
Contextualized teaching (also called context-responsive teaching) is is an instructional approach that connects subject area content with students' individual life and community experiences and requires students to apply what they learn in real world contexts. Subject area content is typically taught through thematic units grounded in students' local environments and inquiry-based projects that require students to research and solve real world issues (e.g., the role of local community gardens in addressing hunger).
As a teaching method, contextualized teaching is well-suited for addressing the learning preferences and needs of diverse learners. Research indicates that contextualized teaching increases motivation, engagement, problem-solving skills, and retention of concepts among students.
Culturally responsive teaching is a teaching strategy that builds on the cultural knowledge and experiences of students. It requires teachers to:
- Present different perspectives and world views
- Highlight the contributions of different cultural groups
- Make content relevant and meaningful to students (e.g., via current events and case studies)
- Include students' experiences and viewpoints into teaching
- Use multicultural materials
- Address different learning styles and forms of intelligence
- Encourage exploration and discussion
- Promote critical thinking
- Use varied teaching strategies and assessment methods
- Incorporate multimedia
Research shows that CRT improves students' initiative, self-efficacy, interpersonal skills, and academic performance.
Watch a video about culturally responsive teaching:
Technology
Nowadays, many teachers incorporate technology into the teaching and learning process. Technology allows teachers to:
- Enhance instruction with different theoretical perspectives, real-life examples, and resources
- Use a variety of teaching strategies and assessment methods
- Address multiple intelligences and different learning styles
- Deliver instruction through different sensory channels via text, audio, video, and hands-on activities
- Engage students in meaningful activities that require them to think critically, apply concepts, and work collaboratively
- Individualize instruction
- Use assistive devices to address exceptional needs
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Assessment is an essential component of the teaching and learning process. It not only documents how well students are learning and performing in a given subject area and grade level, but also provides invaluable, diagnostic information about which concepts students are/are not mastering and which concepts need to be re-taught or reviewed.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS USED IN U.S. SCHOOLS
In U.S. schools, different types of assessments are used, including diagnostic, formative, summative, and standardized assessments.
Diagnostic assessments are typically administered to students at the beginning of a new school year or unit of study to gauge students' prior knowledge (i.e., what they know and can do). Many teachers also compare students' performance at the end of a unit of study to that on diagnostic tests to determine learning gains.
Formative assessments are administered by teachers on an ongoing basis throughout a unit of study to gauge whether or not students are mastering learning outcomes and identify potential areas for improvement. Although their primary purpose is to monitor student progress, they can also provide information about teachers' effectiveness.
Formative assessments tend to be informal in nature and may not always be graded. Examples include oral questions, homework, draft papers, journals, and classroom assessment techniques (CATs) such as the one-minute paper.
To learn more about CATs, peruse Thomas Angelo's and Patricia Cross's examples of CATs.
Summative assessments allow instructors to evaluate the knowledge and competencies that students have acquired after a unit of study or entire course has been taught. They are typically used to assign grades to students and determine if they passed or failed a class or should be promoted to the next grade level.
Summative assessments may include traditional assessments (e.g., multiple choice tests and essays) or alternative assessments such as authentic assessments. Authentic assessments require students to apply what they know in real-life contexts. There are different types of authentic assessments, including:
- Performance tests that require students to solve problems (e.g., perform a science experiment)
- Portfolios that require students to assemble a collection of their best work to demonstrate competencies, accomplishments, and growth in a subject area
- Exhibitions that require students to render a public performance
Watch a video about authentic assessment:
Authentic assessments typically promote critical thinking and are often based on Bloom's revised taxonomy of cognitive behaviors. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) was an educational psychologist who developed the original taxonomy, which was later revised. It includes six levels of cognitive skills:
/8598891193_cbda14bfa8_o.png?_&d2lSessionVal=oD8XFzT749Z3Qf3sr56If7fuS&ou=489104&_&d2lSessionVal=oD8XFzT749Z3Qf3sr56If7fuS&ou=489083 "Picture of Bloom's revised taxonomy as a staircase with remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create written on each separate step")
In Bloom's taxonomy, each level of thinking is associated with a list of action verbs that teachers can use to write learning objectives and design assessments:
Traditional assessments primarily measure students' recall of information or "rote learning". They evaluate the first two levels of Bloom's revised taxonomy (i.e., remembering and understanding) which are associated with lower-order thinking.
In contrast, alternative assessments evaluate levels three through six of Bloom's revised taxonomy (i.e., applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating) which are related to higher-order thinking.
In the classroom, it is essential for teachers to evaluate all levels of Bloom's revised taxonomy.
Standardized assessments are administered to large populations of students to measure their knowledge and skills. They require students to answer the same questions and are scored using uniform criteria. There are two types of standardized assessments commonly used, including norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessments.
Norm-referenced assessments compare students' performance against that of a norm group (i.e., representative sample of students who are in the same grade level or age group). They are typically used in competitive, selection processes (e.g., college admission or scholarships awards) and yield percentile rankings. For example, a student's ranking at the 96% percentile on the SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test) means that they are performing better than 96% of the students in the same grade level or age group. Norm-referenced assessments do not provide information about students' performance in relation to content standards or criteria (e.g., if their performance is below, at, or above proficiency in math in 7th grade).
Criterion-referenced assessments measure students' performance in relation to specific content standards, namely what students should know and be able to do in a given subject area and grade level. They may include true/false, multiple choice, and/or open-ended questions and typically use cut-off points to determine students' level of proficiency in a subject area. They are often created by teachers, publishers, or testing companies in collaboration with state departments of education. They include low stakes tests (e.g., teacher-made quiz at the end of a unit of study) or high stakes tests (e.g., Advanced Placement exams or achievement tests). In Florida, for example, students are required to take the English Language Arts FSA (Florida Standards Assessment) in grades 3-10 and the Mathematics FSA in grades 3-8.
References
Angelo, T. & Cross, P. (n.d.). Classroom assessment technique examples. Retrieved from http://www.ncicdp.org/documents/Assessment%20Strategies.pdf
Ormrod, J. & Jones, B. (2018). Essentials of educational psychology: Big ideas to guide teaching (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Parkay, F. (2020). Becoming a teacher (11th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Princeton Review. (2021). What is the SAT? Retrieved from https://www.princetonreview.com/college/sat-information
Sadker, D. & Zittelman, K. (2018). Teachers, schools, and society: A brief introduction to education (5th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Santrock, J. (2018). Educational psychology (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Teachings in Education. (2017). Authentic assessment: Examples and overview. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/rQPCk27tM4U
Tracy Watanabe. (2013). Bloom's revised taxonomy. [Digital file]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/67373066@N07/8598891193
Teachings in Education. (2018). Cooperative learning model: Strategies and examples. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/cnkKHL_dyGE
Teachings in Education. (2019). Culturally responsive teaching.[Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/aXHlTEJyMOU
Teachings in Education. (2017). Project-based learning: Why, how, and examples. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/EuzgJlqzjFw
